Document Type

Article

Publication Date

2026

Publication Title

Total Environment Advances

Abstract

Soil has played a fundamental yet undervalued role in shaping the fate of historical warfare. While the effects of war on the soil environment have been thoroughly investigated, the impact of soil on military strategies and battle outcomes remains poorly understood. This review aims to: i) explore the multifaceted role of soil in warfare, focusing on its impact on several aspects (mobility, fortifications, camouflage, health, geopolitical strategy, etc.); ii) identify which soil types were usually most associated with conflicts, and iii) how soil features influenced military decision-making. A dataset of over 17,000 recorded battles (1468 BCE–2003) was cross-referenced with soil maps using GIS, and a dual approach analyzes both historical (the complete dataset) and modern conflicts (only battles from the last century). Some soil types (such as Cambisols and Luvisols) seem to dominate in historically investigated battlefields due to their favorable properties for movement and agriculture. Soil conditions influenced pivotal historical battles, from the chariot warfare of Mesopotamia to the muddy terrain of Waterloo. In modern conflicts, arid or degraded soils also seem to be more involved in shifts in resource competition. The review argues that soil (within the primary constraints of topography and hydrology) functions as a mediating variable that shapes warfare outcomes; thus, it is not merely a passive backdrop in warfare activities, since it can act as a direct or indirect conditioning factor contributing, in specific contexts, to make the terrain decisive for warfare outcomes. Future research should further explore such interactions, even considering the context of the widespread permanent warfare of today.

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Published in Total Environment Advances by Elsevier B.V. Available via doi: 10.1016/j.teadva.2026.200154.

This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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